Bramante - History Lab

Birth of Venus

ad_hlab_min — Sat, 19 Feb 2022 16:31:28 +0000

During the 15th century, European civilisation underwent an important process of enrichment and expansion, in addition to profound political, economic and social transformations. In short, there was a change of mentality that culminated in the emergence of a new artistic and literary movement, the Renaissance. This cultural epoch is rooted in anthropocentrism (Man as the centre of the Universe) and in the revaluation of the individual personality, while at the same time it is strongly marked by its attempt to break with the Middle Ages in order to recover the forms of classical Antiquity. It originated in Florence, where it was born in the early 1400s, and lasted for two centuries in three distinct stages. The first, the 15th century, is known as the Quattrocento or early Renaissance; the second, as the Cinquecento or full Renaissance, reduced to the first 20 years of the 16th century and considered the period of plenitude; the third and last is called Mannerism, which covers the rest of the 16th century and in which certain anti-classical connotations predominate. The architecture, which mainly uses stone and marble, is dominated by a high degree of proportion and symmetry; in this field, churches with a centralised plan and a variety of civil buildings stand out: villas, palaces, hospitals and libraries. The architects Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Bramante, Andrea Palladio and Michelangelo stand out. Man is the fundamental subject of sculpture, whether religious or profane, and he was the protagonist of a large number of portraits of a royal, heroic, equestrian or funerary nature. The materials used are diverse, the most common being stone, marble, bronze, wood and terracotta. The most notable figure is Michelangelo, who was joined by Lorenzo Ghiberti, Donatello, Andrea Verrocchio and Luca della Robbia. Finally, the main centres of painting were Florence, Rome and Venice. During the Quattrocento, artists focused their attention on perspective and composition, with Fra Angelico, Massaccio, Piero della Francesca, Ghirlandaio and Botticelli, the latter two being painters of a refined and detailed style. Finally, Cinquecento painting was dominated by simple, monumental forms in which a high degree of technical perfection was achieved, with important examples in the works of Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo.

The post Birth of Venus first appeared on History Lab.

Relative prices of traded goods in the Spanish Empire (1661-1810)

ad_hlab_min — Sat, 19 Feb 2022 16:28:52 +0000

By 1700, the Hispanic Monarchy dominated a vast territory where the American colonies were divided into two huge viceroyalties. Trade between Spain and Peru experienced a certain increase despite being one of the most difficult places to access as it pushed the passage towards the Pacific Ocean. The number of ships that made this journey increased 2.6 times between 1660 and 1770. However, although Peru’s trade with Spain was predominant, Chile was the main destination for its regional maritime exports, which consisted primarily of sugar, tobacco and textiles. Grain trade was non-existent between the Peruvian and Chilean regions because there was no clear comparative advantage. However, the situation changed after the Lima earthquake of 1687, which resulted in a significant drop in wheat prices. On the other hand, trade regulation and its impact on the ease of trade improved after the Bourbons came to the throne. However, the differentials are greater between trade between Spain and Peru than between Peru and Chile. In the former case, goods could cost four times or more in Lima than in Castile at the end of the 17th century. In the case of the Pacific, prices were 50% higher in the same period, whether in Santiago or Lima. A comparison of price dispersion between the second half of the seventeenth century and the eighteenth century shows a tendency towards less dispersion in the case of paper, while values remain relatively stable for bramante and saffron. The War of the Spanish Succession, one of the determining factors, together with the War of Jenkins’ Ear, which slowed down the globalisation process, was an immediate effect at the beginning of the 18th century. The loss of commercial influence was alleviated from 1739 with the full authorisation of single vessels to trade between Spain and Peru.

The post Relative prices of traded goods in the Spanish Empire (1661-1810) first appeared on History Lab.

Virtual tour of St. Peter’s Basilica and St. Peter’s Square (Rome, Italy)

ad_hlab_min — Sat, 19 Feb 2022 16:27:48 +0000

This resource provided by the Vatican’s official website allows you to take a virtual tour of the interior of St. Peter’s Basilica as well as St. Peter’s Square. In 1506 the basilica replaced an earlier one commissioned by Pope Julius II. After the initial participation of Bramante, Raphael and Antonio da Sangallo, in 1546 Michelangelo was appointed as architect, who gave the project its final form with its imposing dome. Inside, the spectacular Baldachin and Cathedra of St. Peter by Bernini stand out, and on the outside, the main façade by Maderno and the colonnade of St. Peter’s Square by Bernini. Different links within the web portal allow access to the interior from the apse, the altar, the north and south arms of the transept, the central nave, the choir chapel, the Pietà and the exterior of St. Peter’s Square.

The post Virtual tour of St. Peter’s Basilica and St. Peter’s Square (Rome, Italy) first appeared on History Lab.